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About the book:
Publisher: Lotus Publishing
Author (s): Ruth Hull
Pages: 924
Edition: 2021
Language: English
Size: 31 Mb
Content:
Introduction .................................................. 7
Chapter 1
Before You Begin ............................................. 9
Anatomical Position ..................................................... 9
Directional Terms ..................................................... 9
Anatomical Regionsand Body Cavities ........................... 11
Dividing the Body ........................................................... 14
Planes........................................................................... 14
Quadrants ................................................................ 14
Multiple-Choice Questions ........................................... 16
Note to Students ................................................................ 17
Learning Pathology........................................................... 17
Important Vocabulary ................................................ 17
Stress and Mental Health ................................................ 19
Chapter 2
Organisation of the Body ............................ 21
Levels of Structural Organisation of the Body . . . . 2 2
Chemical Organisation of the Body ................................ 23
Atoms and Elements ................................................ 23
Molecules and Compounds ...................................... 25
Chemical Bonds ........................................................... 26
The pH Scale: Acids, Bases and Salts........................... 27
Nutrients ..................................................................... 27
Major Compounds of the Body ................................ 28
Cellular Organisation of the Body ................................ 31
Plasma Membrane ..................................................... 31
Transport Across the Plasma Membrane ...................... 32
Cytoplasm and Cell Structures...................................... 34
Life Cycle of a Cell ........................................................... 36
Interphase and DNA Replication ................................ 36
Cell Division ................................................................ 37
Tissue Level of Organisation of the Body ...................... 40
Epithelial Tissue ........................................................... 41
Connective Tissue ..................................................... 43
Muscle Tissue................................................................ 45
Nervous Tissue ........................................................... 46
Membranes ................................................................ 46
Mucous Membranes ........................................... 46
Serous Membranes ................................................ 47
Cutaneous Membranes ..................................... 47
Connective Tissue (Synovial) Membranes . . . 4 7
SystemLevel of Organisation of the Body...................... 50
Pathology Basics................................................................ 50
Cancer........................................................................... 50
Study Outline ..................................................................... 53
Revision ........................................................................... 56
Multiple-Choice Questions ........................................... 56
Chapter 3
The Skin, Hair and Nails ............................ 59
Skin..................................................................................... 59
Functions of the Skin ................................................ 59
Anatomy of the Skin ................................................ 61
Types of Skin................................................................ 66
Hair..................................................................................... 67
Structure of the Hair ................................................ 67
Life Cycle of a Hair ...................................................... 68
Functions of the Hair ................................................ 69
Nails ................................................................................ 70
Anatomy of the Nail ................................................ 70
Functions of the Nail ................................................ 71
Cutaneous Glands ........................................................... 71
Sebaceous Glands ...................................................... 71
Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands ................................ . 7 2
Common Pathologiesof the Skin..................................... 73
Red Flags ..................................................................... 73
Terms for Marks and Growths on the Skin . . .73
Common Pathologiesof the Nails ................................ 82
Study Outline ..................................................................... 85
Revision ........................................................................... 87
Multiple-Choice Questions ........................................... 87
Chapter 4
The Skeletal System ....................................... 89
Functions of the SkeletalSystem ..................................... 89
Anatomy of Bones ........................................................... 90
Bone Tissue ................................................................ 90
Bone Formation and Remodelling ........................... 91
What Does Ageing Do To Our Bones? ...................... 91
Types of Bones ................................................................ 92
Structure of a Long Bone ........................................... 93
Organisation of the Skeleton ........................................... 94
Axial Skeleton ................................................................ 96
Bones of the Skull ...................................................... 96
Bones of the Neurocranium ...................................... 96
Bones of the Viscerocranium ...................................... 97
Bones of the Neck and Spine ...................................... 99
Bones of the Thorax................................................ 103
Appendicular Skeleton ................................................ 105
Bones of the Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder) . . 106
Bones of the Upper Limb ...................................... 106
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle (Hip) ........................... 107
Bones of the Lower Limb ...................................... 108
Joints ........................................................................... 113
Functional Classification of Joints........................... 113
Structural Classification of Joints ........................... 113
Movements at Synovial Joints................................ 115
Common Pathologies of the Skeletal System . . 119
Red Flags .................................................................... 119
Study Outline .............................................................. . 1 2 5
Revision .......................................................................... 127
Multiple-Choice Questions ........................................ 128
Chapter 5
The Muscular System . . . . . . . 129
Functions of the Muscular System ............................ 129
Muscle Tissue .............................................................. 130
Types of Muscle Tissue: Skeletal, Cardiac,
Smooth (Visceral) ............................................. 130
Skeletal Muscle .............................................................. 132
Structure of a Skeletal Muscle.................................. 132
Muscle Contraction ......................................................... 135
How Do Muscles Contract? . . . . . . . 135
How Do Muscles Relax? ........................................ 136
Types of Muscular Contraction ............................. 138
Muscle Metabolism ................................................... 139
Muscle Fibre Types ................................................... 140
Muscles of the Body ................................................... 142
Skeletal Muscles and Movement .................................. 144
Muscles of the Face and Scalp.................................. 145
Muscles of the Neck................................................... 150
Muscles of the Trunk ............................................. 154
Muscles of the Shoulder ........................................ 157
Muscles of the Back................................................... 162
Muscles of the Arm ................................................... 166
Muscles of the Forearm ............................................. 166
Muscles of the Hand ............................................. 172
Muscles of the Hip ................................................... 174
Muscles of the Thigh ............................................. 175
Muscles of the Leg ................................................... 179
Muscles of the Foot ................................................... 183
Common Pathologies of the Muscular System. 186
Red Flags .................................................................... 186
Study Outline .................................................................... 191
Photographs of Principle Skeletal Muscles . . . . 193
Revision .......................................................................... 199
Multiple-Choice Questions ........................................ 199
Chapter 6
The Nervous System ....................................... 201
Functions of the Nervous System.................................. 201
Organisation of the Nervous System. . . . . . 202
Central Nervous System ........................................ 203
Peripheral Nervous System. . . ....................... 203
Somatic Nervous System .................................. 204
Autonomic Nervous System ............................. 204
Nervous Tissue .............................................................. 206
Neuroglia .................................................................... 206
Neurons .................................................................... 206
Transmission of a Nerve Impulse .................................. 209
Nerves ............................................................................... 211
Brain .................................. 211
Protection of the Brain ............................................. 212
Cranial Meninges ............................................. 212
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) .................................. 213
Regions of the Brain................................................... 215
Brain Stem ......................................................... 215
Cerebellum ......................................................... 216
Diencephalon (Interbrain) .................................. 216
Cerebrum .............................................................. 218
Cranial Nerves .............................................................. 221
Spinal Cord .................................................................... 223
Functions of the Spinal Cord .................................. 223
Anatomy of the Spinal Cord .................................. 223
Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord....................... 224
Spinal Nerves . 224
Special Sense Organs ................................................... 227
Eyes .......................................................................... 227
Ears............................................................................... 230
Mouth.......................................................................... 232
Nose .......................................................................... 233
Common Pathologies of the Nervous System . . . 234
Red Flags .................................................................... 234
Study Outline.................................................................... 241
Revision .......................................................................... 243
Multiple-Choice Questions ........................................ 244
Chapter 7
The Endocrine System .................................. 245
Functions of the Endocrine System ............................ 245
Hormones ......................................................................... 246
Types of Hormones ................................................... 246
Action of Hormones................................................... 246
Control of Hormone Release .................................. 246
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones ....................... 247
Hypothalamus ......................................................... 247
Pituitary Gland ........................................ 247
Pineal Gland .............................................................. 250
Thyroid Gland ......................................................... 251
Parathyroid Glands ................................................... 252
Thymus Gland ......................................................... 252
Pancreatic Islets ......................................................... 253
Adrenal Glands ......................................................... 253
Ovaries and Testes ....................... 255
Ageing and Our Hormones ........................................ 256
Stress Response in More Detail .................................. 256
Fight-or-Flight Response ........................................ 256
Resistance Reaction ................................................... 257
Effects of Long-Term Stress: Exhaustion . . . . 257
Common Pathologies of the Endocrine System . . 259
Red Flags . . ......................................................... 259
Study Outline .................................................................... 262
Revision .......................................................................... 263
Multiple-Choice Questions ........................................ 264
Chapter 8
The Respiratory System. . . . - - 265
Functions of the Respiratory System........................... 265
Organisation of the Respiratory System..................... 266
Nose ..................................................................... 267
Pharynx (Throat) ..................................................... 268
Larynx (Voice Box) ................................................ 269
Trachea (Windpipe) ................................................ 271
Bronchi ................................................................ 272
Lungs ..................................................................... 273
Physiologyof Respiration........................................... 274
Common Pathologiesof the RespiratorySystem . . 278
Red Flags ................................................................ 278
Study Outline................................................................ 283
Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Multiple-Choice Questions ..................................... 285
Chapter 9
The Cardiovascular System . . . . . 287
Blood .......................................................................... 287
Functions of Blood ................................................ 287
Components of Blood ........................................... 287
Blood Plasma ............................ 288
Formed Elements: Erythrocytes, Leucocytes . 289
Heart .......................................................................... 292
Anatomy of the Heart ........................................... 292
Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation . . . 296
Coronary Circulation ..................................... 298
Physiology of the Heart ..................................... 299
Regulation of the Heart Rate ........................... 299
Cardiac Cycle ................................................ 301
Bloodvessels................................................................ 302
Arteries and Arterioles ........................................... 302
Capillaries................................................................ 303
Veins and Venules ................................................ 304
Blood Pressure ........................................................... 305
PrimaryBlood Vesselsof SystemicCirculation. . . 306
Aorta ..................................................................... 307
Superior Vena Cavar Inferior Vena Cava and Coronary Sinus........................................... 307
Primary Blood Vessels of the Head, Faceand Neck 310
Primary Blood Vessels of the Upper Limbs . . . 311
Primary Blood Vessels of the Thorax...................... 312
Primary Blood Vessels of the Abdomen . . . . 313
Primary Blood Vessels of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs ........................................... 316
Common Pathologiesof the Cardiovascular System . 317
Red Flags ................................................................ 317
Study Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Revision ..................................................................... 324
Multiple-Choice Questions ..................................... 325
Chapter 10
The Lymphatic and Immune System . . . 327
Functionsof the Lymphaticand Immune System . . 327
Organisation of the Lymphaticand Immune System . 330
Lymph ..................................................................... 331
Lymphatic Capillaries ........................................... 331
Lymphatic Vessels ................................................ 331
Lymph Nodes (Glands) ........................................... 332
Lymphatic Organs ................................................ 334
Lymphatic Nodules (Muscosa-Associated
Lymphoid Tissue) ........................................... 335
Resistanceto Diseaseand Immunity........................... 336
Non-Specific Resistance to Disease ...................... 336
Mechanical and Chemical Barriers . . . . 336
Natural Killer Cells and Phagocytes . . . . 336
Inflammation ................................................ 337
Fever ................................................................ 337
Immunity (The Immune Response) ...................... 337
Types of Immune Responses ........................... 338
Common Pathologiesof the Lymphatic
and Immune System ........................................... 339
Red Flags ................................................................ 339
Study Outline................................................................ 341
Revision ..................................................................... 342
Multiple-Choice Questions ...................................... 343
Chapter 11
The Digestive System . . . . . . . 345
Functionsof the Digestive System ........................... 345
Organisation of the Digestive System ...................... 346
Gastrointestinal Tractand Its Accessory Organs . . 349
Mouth (Oral or Buccal Cavity) . . . . . . 349
Oesophagus ........................................................... 352
Stomach ........................................... 353
Pancreas ................................................................ 355
Liver ..................................................................... 355
Gall Bladder ........................................................... 357
Small Intestine ..................................................... 357
Large Intestine ...................................... 361
Common Pathologiesof the Digestive System. . . 363
Red Flags ................................................................ 363
Study Outline................................................................ 369
Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Multiple-Choice Questions ..................................... 372
Chapter 12
The Urinary System ....................................... 373
Functionsof the Urinary System ................................ 373
Organisation of the Urinary System........................... 374
Kidneys ........................................... 374
Anatomy of the Kidneys ................................ 374
Physiology of the Kidneys...................... . . 378
Urine Production . . ...................... . . 379
Fluid and Electrolyte Balance. . . . . . 381
Ureters........................................................... . . 382
Urinary Bladder ........................... . . . 382
Urethra ...................................................... . . 383
Common Pathologiesof the Urinary System . . . 383
Red Flags ..................................................... . . 383
Study Outline ..................................................... . . 386
Revision ........................................................... . . 387
Multiple-Choice Questions ........................... . . 388
Chapter 13
The Reproductive System ....................... . 389
Functionsof the Reproductive System . . . 389
Male Reproductive System................................ . . 390
Female Reproductive System ........................... . . 393
Female Reproductive Cycle ...................... . . 397
Ageingand the Reproductive System . . . . . 401
Common Pathologiesof the Reproductive System . 403
Male Reproductive System - Red Flags . . . . 403
Female Reproductive System - Red Flags . . 403
Study Outline........................................................... . 408
Revision ................................................................ . 409
Multiple-Choice Questions ................................ . 409
Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions . . 410
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Vitamins and Minerals - Dietary Sources, Functions, Deficiencies
Bibliography ............................................. . 416
Clossary .................................................. . 418
Index ...................................................... 435